Romeos Tragic Flaw :: essays research papers

"The essence of being human is that one does not seek perfection," states the British author, George Orwell. Every individual grows to understand that perfection is unachievable, therefore, human beings embody dramatic flaws. Many people tend to be unkempt or have poor manners, while others have behavioral difficulties such as quick temperament, dishonesty, or intentional rudeness. These perplexities can bring about hardships throughout an individual's life. William Shakespeare demonstrates some of these hardships in his puissant drama about The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, that portrays a protagonist, Romeo, who acquires the unfortunate flaw of rashness which later develops into the major downfall of his death. Romeo is an extremely impulsive individual. Throughout the drama, Romeo makes decisions without considering the consequences. His mistakes bring about several complications that eventually lead to his untimely death. From the beginning of the novel, Romeo continuously falls in love with different people. The first Act of the play portrays an ardent love for the gorgeous Rosaline who refuses to love him. Romeo's maudlin behavior is a concern to his friends, who decide to take him to the Capulet's masquerade party. Here, Juliet's beauty strikes Romeo and his previous love for Rosaline instantaneously diminishes. After the party, Romeo encounters Juliet and makes the impulsive decision of promising to marry her. Romeo recounts the story of his newfound love and the desire to marry her, to his adviser, Friar Lawrence, and seeks his advice. The Friar explains that, "Young men's love then lies/ not truly in their hearts, but in their eyes" (89). The Friar tries to convince Romeo that his love is not true, for he hastily changes his mind about the love of his life. But Romeo does not change his mind and is wed with Juliet. Romeo is also quite brash in his decision to slay Tybalt. If Romeo considered the consequences of murdering his enemy, he could have prevented his banishment from Verona. Romeo fails to consider that there is no need to slay Tybalt because Tybalt is already headed for assassination due to the fact that he started a fray and murdered Mecrutio. Unfortunately, his impulsiveness overpowers him and Romeo fights Tybalt. If only Romeo had thought rationally, he would not be separated from his dear, sweet Juliet. His banishment causes Romeo to cry out with extreme anguish to the Friar, "Hence 'banished' is 'banished from the world,' / And worlds exile is death.

Theory Observation Distinction

Is there a genuine distinction between observable and unobservable entities? Why does it matter? How, and why, might one distinguish between theoretical and observational statements in science? I have decided to tackle both these questions because they feed into and relate to one another. They emphasize different aspects of a prevalent debate, all aspects of which I wish to touch on. Whether the question of a distinction between observable vs unobservable entities is synonymous to the question of a distinction between theoretical vs non-theoretical statements is itself a matter of debate.Quine advocates semantic ascent, the shift in which the language we use to refer to the world becomes something we talk about in its own right. Semantic ascent is a shift from questions about objects to questions about words or statements. He says we should ‘drop the talk of observation and talk instead of observation sentences, the sentences that are said to report observations’ (The ro ots of Reference). So obviously Quine thinks the two questions are equivalent. They have often been treated as equivalent questions, or at least not distinguished too carefully.I agree with Van Fraassen that we should at least note and respect the differences between the two ways of talking about what might be the same issue, and not make the category mistake of talking about theoretical entities, just for clarities sake. At any event Paul M Churchland disagrees with Quine that the two debates are parallel , He says â€Å"we agree (Churchland and Van Fraassen) that the observable/unobservable distinction is entirely distinct from the nontheoretical/theoretical distinction†.This disagreement / confusion as to the very terrain, layout of the questions of the debate, arises because there is the ordinary language question of how do we naturally apply the terms ‘observed’ and ‘observation’, as well as the question of whether a principled O/T distinction c an or should be drawn; as Gerry Fodor’s Granny says: â€Å"True there is an epistemologically important distinction, that it’s reasonable to call ‘the’ observation inference distinction, and that is theory relative.And, also true, it is this theory-relative distinction that scientists usually use the terms ’observed’ and ‘inferred’ to mark. But that is quite compatible with there being another distinction, which it is also reasonable to call ‘the’ observation /inference distinction which is also of central significance to the philosophy of science, and which is not theory relative. † It is this second principled O/T distinction that I will focus on as opposed to the ordinary language distinction, I do not think ordinary language arguments bear on the question of whether there is or should be a principled distinction.Although examining what inclines us one way or another in ordinary language usage may clarify f actors that also influence us in an overall distinction, such as naturalness, entrenchment, flexibility and plasticity. After semantic ascent the question of whether there is an O/T dichotomy becomes one of whether all observation reports presuppose some theory. This slightly ignores the question of the ontological status of the entities, whether observed or unobserved, but this will come up when I tackle the subsidiary part of each question the â€Å"why make a distinction, for what purpose? †or â€Å"why does it matter if a distinction presents itself? I think the strategy of semantic ascent is useful and justified since the debate takes place in at least two domains, the perceptual/cognitive (internal) and the observational/inferential (public)â€Å"The strategy of semantic ascent is that it carries the discussion into a domain where both parties are better agreed on the objects (viz. , words) and on the main terms connecting them. Words, or their inscriptions, unlike po ints, miles, classes and the rest, are tangible objects of the size so popular in the marketplace, where men of unlike conceptual schemes communicate at their best.The strategy is one of ascending to a common part of two fundamentally disparate conceptual schemes, the better to discuss the disparate foundations. No wonder it helps in philosophy. † Quine word and object. But it is a bit confusing and difficult to translate debates or points between the two, and certain debates are clearer at the ground level rather than the meta-level. There are three classes of arguments that bear on the T/O distinction: 1. Meaning holism arguments. Which tend to work against the distinction 2.Ordinary language arguments. Which tend to work for the distinction 3. Psychological arguments. Which can work for or against As well as a specific argument by Grover Maxwell from the continuity of observation with inference which works against the T/O distinction. There are two extant modes for making t he theory observation distinction – Fodor’s and Van Fraassen’s. Fodor defends the distinction against the implication from cognitive science that perception is continuous with cognition. VanFraassen defends the distinction against Maxwell’s challenge that it is impossible to draw the line between what is observable and what is only detectable in some more roundabout way. Fodor and Van Fraassen have different reasons for drawing a distinction, Fodor, to defend realism, Van Fraassen to attack realism, strangely enough. Fodor to defend realism against Kuhnian relativism, and Van Fraassen to defend constructive empiricism, a form of anti-realism, against incoherence, and so pit it against realism.As Andre Kukla notes â€Å"It is not surprising that a realist and an anti-realist should agree on something; but it is curious that van Fraassens and Fodor’s defenses of the theory-observation distinction play diametrically opposite roles in their philosophi cal agenda’s. † Andre Kukla the theory observation distinction. But should we be driven by a philosophical agenda in debating a question? Or should we resolve the question and then decide on a position which accords with our answer? Shouldn’t we be neutral when we make philosophical decisions?Unfortunately in philosophy there is so little ‘evidence’ making up your mind is more a matter of achieving coherence, it is legitimate to allow justification to flow in all directions. The question of whether there is a T/O distinction is relevant to the debate between realists anti-realists and relativists in the following manner. So far as realists debate with anti-realists is concerned, the T/O distinction is optional for realists. They have everything to gain and nothing to lose by making it unravel.They have everything to gain, because the constructive empiricist position is incoherent without a T/O distinction. But so far as realists debate with relativis ts goes, realists have conversely everything to gain and nothing to lose by defending a distinction, they would defeat relativists. Kuhnain Relativism requires the lack of a theory neutral language with which to adjudicate our differences, so we get incommensurability, incommensurability leads to the irrationality of theory choice thus we get relativism. But realists cannot have an easy victory against both parties.I suggest that the realist denies the T/O distinction and so wins against the constructive empiricist. The lack of a T/O distinction does not entail relativism; a theory laden observation can still test a theory. To return to the question of whether we should be driven by a philosophical agenda in deciding a point, it must be remembered that we are concerning ourself with the question of whether there is a significant or principled O/T distinction. Its significance comes from its position within a larger debate.Frankly, everyone can admit there is some sort of distinction or difference between direct and indirect observation, the question really is how significant the difference is, whether a distinction can be drawn at a position significant enough to support any theory, the significance depends on the work it is made to do by larger theories. Paul M. churchland defines his scientific realism as a realism entirely in terms of his attitude towards the T/O distinction. He believes any attempt to draw the distinction, particularly Van Fraassen’s, is arbitrary.By any skepticism â€Å"our observational ontology is rendered exactly as dubious as our non-observational ontology† He is not an orthodox scientific realist; he is skeptical about the overall truth of our beliefs, the reference of scientific terms, and the convergence of theory towards truth. But he is skeptical about the success of all our theories, cognition at large, from a low to a high level not just scientific theories, and thus does not distinguish between the integrity of o bservables and the integrity of unobservables. He states that â€Å"global excellence of theory is the ultimate measure of truth and ontology at all levels of cognition†.Although churchland has exactly the same attitude to observables and unobservables, a cautious skeptical attitude, relative to his peers he has a slightly pro attitude to unobsevables, and a negative attitude to observables. This pro – attitude to the unobservables of science makes him a realist and his slightly negative attitude to the observables of everyday life make him a scientific realist â€Å"the function of science, therefore, is to provide us with a superior and (in the long run) perhaps profoundly different conception of the world, even at the perceptual level†.I agree with Churchland as to the theoretical character of perceptual judgments, I agree that â€Å"perception consists in the conceptual exploitation of the natural information contained in our sensations or sensory statesâ⠂¬  . Having done part of a module on â€Å"the brain as a statistician† I know that our perceptual judgments are statistical decision problems akin to gambling or any decision based on uncertain evidence.Because inputs are noisy – the external world and inefficient transduction creates noise- the question of whether a signal is present or not will reflect the relative probability that a signal is drawn from distribution A(noise only) or distribution B(signal + noise). Biasing factors are the probability of occurrence of a member of each category, information on which is drawn from memory. Perceptual decisions rely on perception and memory, or evidence and prior knowledge, prior knowledge being essentially a theory about the world.However I disagree with Paul Churchland as to the possibility of our being trained to make systematic perceptual judgments in terms of theories other than the common sense theory we ‘learnt at our mothers knee’ For one, I donâ⠂¬â„¢t think we learn our common sense theory rather it is built into our genetics. I do not think we are nearly as plastic as he makes out, on this point I go with Gerry Fodor, perception and cognition are not continuous, and perception can never make judgments in terms of grand theories which we can barely conceive. The boundary between what can be observed and what must be inferred is largely determined by fixed architectural features of an organisms sensory / perceptual psychology† Gerry Fodor Observation Reconsidered. Paul Churchland directly contradicts this saying â€Å"our current modes of conceptual exploitation (perception) are rooted, in substantial measure, not in the nature of our perceptual environment, nor in the innate features of our psychology, but rather in the structure and content of our common language†.How plastic the brain may be is an empirical point, and I think Gerry Fodor wins the debate with his analysis of the muller-lyer illusion. Fodor sa ys the robustness of the muller lyer illusion attests to the imperviousness of perception by cognition. There are both perceptual plasiticities and implasticities. Kuhn was impressed by the plasticities, but it is time to dwell more on the implasticities. â€Å"To the best of my knowledge, all the standard perceptual illusions exhibit this curious refractory character :knowing they are illusions doesn’t make them go away† However I don’t think Fodor is being entirely empirically accurate.Some illusions such as the concave – convex illusion, in which heavily shaded circles appear as concave when the shadow is at the top of the circle, and convex when the shadow is at the bottom of the circle, which occurs because we have a strong prior belief / prior assumption that light falls from above, can be reversed or at least nullified if you really try. The famous duck rabbit can definitely be flipped at will. And the old hag, young girl illusion, personally I can never see the old hag unless it is explained to e, then I can. But anyway Fodor makes his point, we cannot always see just what we want to see or think we should see. I agree with Gerry Fodor that perception is fairly modular, and is not (probably) affected (much) by conscious explicit knowledge. Certainly the muller lyer illusion is fairly robust And I think far too much is made of the duck rabbit illusion – Kuhn says â€Å"it is as elementary prototypes for these transformations of the scientists world view that the familiar demonstrations of a switch in gestalt prove so suggestive†.But I do not think they are anything more than just that – suggestive – because a scientist, does not, cannot form an image or representation of quarks and leptons in any way analogous to a duck or a rabbit, so this image cannot ‘flip’. Paul Churchland seems to think we can form such images, but personally I cannot. I see the western sky redden as the sun sets not â€Å"the wavelength distribution of incoming solar radiation shift towards the longer wavelengths†.However I would say our inability to alter our perception does not damage churchland’s essential point which was that perception relies on theory, implicit theory. A very entrenched embedded theory, but theory all the same. Churchland thinks the distinction between the theoretical and the non-theoretical is just a distinction between freshly minted theory and thoroughly thumb-worn theory whose ‘cultural assimilation is complete’.I think some ‘thumb-worn theory’ is actually entrenched in our biology. But maybe individual differences come into play here, maybe some people are more plastic than others, or innately sensitive to some aspects of reality than others, maybe our biology is not universal. Paul Churchland says that the person with perfect pitch is not a physiological freak but a practiced observer. But I think it most likely that there is something unique about them.Maybe I am closed minded in the sort of visualization Churchland encourages, maybe that’s just me, I had no luck with seeing in the fourth dimension even after reading ‘Flatland’ and ‘speculations on the fourth dimension’ whereas other people (the authors) claim to have, still I’m a bit skeptical. Paul Churland’s thought experiments where he gets us to imagine various other beings, with radically different physiology, beings that can visually see infra-red heat for example, raises the idea of the possibility of other sensory modalities.And although we cannot communicate with them, so they are not part of our epistemic community, there are animals on our planet who presumably sense different things to us, such as bats and dolphins. Van Fraassen insists that is ‘observable’ must be observable to us unassisted, and as we currently are, an anthropocentric conception; â€Å"the limitations to whi ch the ‘able’ in observable refers are our limitations qua human beings. † It could be argued that Van Fraassens anthropocentric conception of the observable is not just anthropocentric, but parochial.Alternatively it could be argued that van fraassen draws the line arbitrarily: according to Van Fraassen we can observe planets using a telescope, but we cannot observe viruses using a microscope, because planets are something we could observe without any augmentation of the senses, where we close enough to them, and indeed some of them we can observe from earth, our natural position, (venus) whereas under normal conditions viruses cannot be seen.I do not agree with this objection to Van Fraassen, I think where he draws the line is one natural place to draw it if it has to be drawn, but it is just that I don’t agree with him that the drawing of the line here is very significant. I am a realist and I believe unobservables are generally as real as observables. F rom his drawing of the line, van Fraassen only believes in observables.Fodor lightly passes over the fact that â€Å"perceptual analyses are undetermined by sensory arrays† and are only resolved by Bayesian reasoning from previous evidence / experience, and that â€Å"the appeal to background theory is inherent to the process of perceptual analysis† Fodor Observaiton reconsidered. I think this fact is indisputable, and it is in this respect that perception and cognition are similar as Paul churchland maintains, both are theories and â€Å"global excellence of theory is the ultimate measure of truth and ontology at all levels of cognition† .The impossibility of our being trained to make systematic perceptual judgments in terms of theories other that the common sense theory we ‘learnt at our mothers knee’, the implasticity of actual human perception, is irrelevant in drawing a theory observation distinction, both perception and cognition are theory de pendent. But Granted as Fodor points out against Kuhn scientific knowledge doesn’t actually percolate down to affect the perceptual. Kuhnian perceptual theory loading does not occur. There is some natural barrier. Is this barrier the location of the O/T distinction? I think it probably is if there is one.It is significant, but not significant for the anti-realist, it does not decide our ontology. It is significant in the realists fight with relativism since observations are theory laden, but are not necessarily laden with the high level theories that they must adjudicate between. So perceptions are laden with perceptual theory, but not laden with quantum theory. Fodor makes the O/T distinction in such a way that it is significant for realists against relativism, but not significant for anti-realists. â€Å"Fodor isn’t looking for a notion of observationality that underwrites our granting epistemic privilege to observation statements.He’s looking for a notion th at will ward off the incommensurability arguments. And for that purpose anything that produces consensus will do† Andre Kukla The theory observation distinction. Now to explicitly tackle the questions, â€Å"why make a distinction, for what purpose? †or â€Å"why does it matter if a distinction does or does not present itself? †. I have already touched on the answer to these questions when outlining the role of the distinction (or lack of) in larger debates between anti-realists, and relativists.The question of the O/T distinction has epistemological significance; it concerns the epistemic bearing of observational evidence on theories it is used to evaluate. This is part of the debate between realists and relativists. The relativists holding that observation is an inadequate basis for choosing between rival theories, the realists claiming it is an adequate basis, or there is at least something which is an adequate basis. Observational evidence also plays importan t and philosophically interesting roles in other areas including scientific discovery and the application of scientific theories to practical problems.But we will concentrate on theory testing. It seems that if all observations are theory laden then there is no objective bedrock against which to test and justify theory. The classic or common view of science is that scientific knowledge is derived from the ‘facts’ or observations. Two schools of thought that involve attempts to formalize this common view of science are the empiricists and the positivists. An extreme interpretation of the claim that science is derived from the facts implies that the facts must first be established, and subsequently a theory built to fit them.This is the baconian method building a case from the ground up. This is not how science actually proceeds. â€Å"our search for relevant facts needs to be guided by our current state of knowledge, which tells us for example that measuring the ozone c oncentration at various locations in the atmosphere yields relevant facts whereas measuring the average hair length of the youths in Sydney does not† A F chalmers What is this thing called Science?. But the fact that science is guided by paradigms does not support kuhnian relativism.Kuhnian relativism can only be established if incommensurability is, that is if high level theory-loading of observation were established. As I have already argued along with Fodor, observation may be loaded with low level perceptual theory but not with high level conscious and elaborate theory. Proponents of competing theories often produce impressively similar observational data, this indicates perceptual theory loading is not that great. If science were blinded by paradigms that would be a different matter. Against semantic theory loading; Often observations reported non-linguistically, pictorially with tables of numbers etc.Late 20th century philosophers may have exaggerated the influence of se mantic loading because they thought of theory testing in terms of inferential relations between observational and theoretical sentences. Against Salience or attentional loading – scientists under different paradigms attend to different things. Yes, but doesn’t always happen. And scientists may appreciate the significance of data that is brought to their attention that had not been noticed. Attentional loading is not inevitable and not irredeemable. So observation is and adequate basis for adjudicating between theories (unless the theories are underdetermined by data).In conclusion I would say there is no absolute T/O distinction, but there is enough of a difference, enough bottom up flow of justification, to defeat relativism. A. F. chalmers: what is this thing called science? Paul M Churchland: Scientific realism and the plasticity of the mind Paul M churchland: The ontological status of obsservables: In praise of superempirical virtues Gerry Fodor: observation recons idered Andre Kukla: the theory observation distinction W. V. O Quine: Word and Object Bas Van Fraassen: the scientific image

Summary Communication Theory - 13084 Words

Introduction to Communication Theory: Course Summary Chapter 1: Launching your study What is a theory? What distinguishes a good theory from a bad theory? A theory is a set of systematic informed hunches about the way things work. A good theory goes beyond accepted wisdom and offers explanations and speculations about phenomena. Additionally, a good theory consists of a system of concepts which means that the theorist were able to make connections among his ideas. A theory tends to shape our perception of reality and behaviour and guides us through unknown areas. Images of theory: 1.) Theories as nets: Theories try to explain phenomena. 2.) Theories as lenses: our perception is shaped by the way we want to see things.†¦show more content†¦How does quantitative methods differ from qualitative research methods? Social scientists prefer quantitative research by experiments because it offers precise results. At first they set up set up a hypothesis or research question. They develop a cause-and-effect relationship by deliberately changing one independent variable and observe the effect on a dependent variable. Then they evaluate the collected data and draw a conclusion. For example, viewers of a commercial will be more attracted if they trust the celebrity shown in the advert. While quantitative research records data in numerical orders, interpretive scholars use qualitative methods and record data in linguistic forms. They examine how people use signs and symbols to create and infer meaning. Interpretive scholars use experiments, interviews and surveys to test theories. Additionally, text analysis and ethnography help to search for meaning. Chapter 3: Weighing the words: Symbolic Convergence Theory ( Ernest Bormann) Summary of theory: The theory offers a method to look at small group interaction and states that cohesiveness is achieved if members of a group share similar fantasies. In this theory fantasy refers not to fictional stories but to stories or jokes that contain or reveal emotion. It includes events from a group member’s past or an event which might happen in the future. However, itShow MoreRelatedSummary Communication Theory13076 Words   |  53 PagesIntroduction to Communication Theory: Course Summary Chapter 1: Launching your study What is a theory? What distinguishes a good theory from a bad theory? A theory is a set of systematic informed hunches about the way things work. A good theory goes beyond accepted wisdom and offers explanations and speculations about phenomena. Additionally, a good theory consists of a system of concepts which means that the theorist were able to make connections among his ideas. A theory tends to shape our perceptionRead MoreThe Art of Personal Evangelism1175 Words   |  5 PagesChristian and the Church for the importance of personal evangelism. Also, He wants to approached the point of the scarcity of quality evangelism from North American churches, and address the foundational elements of personal evangelism, outline theories of communication, and overview techniques. About the Arthur of this book â€Å"The Art of Personal Evangelism†, the Arthur is Will McRaney. Will McRaney having served a variety position of evangelism. He earned his Ph.D. in Evangelism from New Orleans BaptistRead MoreApples Corporate Strategy2270 Words   |  10 PagesUniversity of West London Corporate Communication Strategy of Apple Course: MSc International Business Management Lecturer: Amerjit Walia Student: Chidi Nlewedim (21159696) Contents Summary 3 Introduction 4 Corporate Communication Strategy 5 External Communication 6 Internal Communication 7 Human Resource Management 8 Corporate Image, Identity and Reputation 9 Conclusion 10 References 11 Summary In our everyday lives, communication is very important in human interactionRead MoreRelational Dialectics Theory Essay2542 Words   |  11 PagesComparing relationships to unicycles seems strange or unlikely, however the constant strive for balance against opposing forces is a perfect description for relational dialectics theory (Griffin, 2009). Barbara Montgomery, an interpersonal communication scholar, describes riding a unicycle as a task of contradicting forces, constantly pulling against each other in a tug-of-war motion. The best way to control the wheel is by the constant changes in movement, adapting one way or the other, to maintainRead MoreThe Effect Of New Media On The Position Paper1705 Words   |  7 Pagesoutlines what stance the nation will be taking on an issue in question and is brought before foreign nations as a declaration of intent. In recent years, the rapid evolution of â€Å"new media†, defined by Anne Frances Wysocki as â€Å"†¦networked digita l communication technologies†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1), have changed the way in which people all over the world communicate with one another. The widespread use of the Internet has influenced the development of new genres, such as the blog post and tweet, as well as the decline ofRead MoreAnalysis of International Communication and Globalization by Ali Mohammadi1028 Words   |  5 Pagesvariety of disciplines. In the field of International communication, the process of globalisation is not only about the emergence of huge transnational corporations. It also implies changes in communication policies and their impact on cultural autonomy and identity not only in weaker nations but in the most powerful ones as well. It is in this context that International Communication scholars are forced to rethink their existing theories of the free flow of information, the rapid growth of informationRead MoreMarketing Strategy Concepts, Methodology, And Theory1350 Words   |  6 PagesIn this part, related literatures about marketing strategy concepts, methodology, and theory, are reviewed. These concepts, theory and methodology are the foundations of research design of this work. 2.1 Marketing strategy The material world is objective while the people’s psychologies are very subjective. The same concepts from different people may mean different implications. The concepts of strategy tend to be used in many scenarios and embody different meanings. The marketing strategy alsoRead MoreThe Success Factors Of Multinational Corporations1272 Words   |  6 PagesMindset. In the following chart is a summary of these skills and techniques of a manager in MNC in contrast of a manager with a local presence: Skill/Technique Global Management Local Management Culture Sensitivity ï‚ · The ability to understand different cultural contexts and viewpoints ï‚ · Adapts to different cultures ï‚ · Manage diverse teams ï‚ · Do not have to deal with different cultures ï‚ · The awareness of the own culture is not a critical skill to have Communication ï‚ · Knowledge of a foreign language ï‚ ·Read MoreTeam Development Process And Steps1596 Words   |  6 Pagesdeveloping several activities, and others. The theory developed by Bruce Tuckman reveals the fact that team development is a process that involves steps like forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. This model reveals the principles used by most companies in their team development process (Chapman, 2009). The theory developed by Donelson Forsyth identifies the principles that explain how groups tend to form. In accordance with this theory, successful groups are formed based on a seriesRead MoreHabermass Notion of the Colonization of the Life-world Essays1047 Words   |  5 Pagespresented his theories of colonization of the life-world based on classic theorists, including such sociologists as Weber, Durkheim, Parsons, and Mead and Marx. At the heart of his theories was communication. Habermas believed the main problem with society was not how to control it but how to maintain communicative action, believing that societies have become increasingly impaired or â€Å"colonized†. Habermas called this the â €Å"colonization of life-world by systems†. The first part of Habermas’s theory is concerned

Transformational Leadership Style For Producing Positive...

Transformational leadership is an effective leadership style for producing positive changes and strengthening organizations. These leaders are passionate, energetic, and focused on helping every member of the group succeed. The four dimensions of transformational leadership garner trust, respect, and admiration from followers in the organization. Organizational commitment results from employees being satisfied and devoted to the vision of the company. Another important trait of a transformational leader is emotional intelligence. It is necessary in relationship building and managing emotions in situations. Recognizing the limitations of transformational leadership and understanding the assets of various leadership styles will help a leader determine which style is most suitable for the occasion. Dimensions of Transformational Leadership Transformational leaders work to develop their followers’ full potentials, higher needs, value systems, motivation and moralities (Ismail, Mohamed, Sulaiman, Mohamed Yusuf, 2011). Investing in the development and beliefs of the employees furthers unity in goals and beliefs. It helps them look past self-interests for the sake of their team and the larger organization. This contemporary leadership style drives motivation. Researcher Bernard M. Bass identified four components of transformational leadership: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. He suggested theseShow MoreRelatedWhat I Have Learned of Leadership1198 Words   |  5 PagesIt is hard to quantify what I have learned in the semester of Leadership because the courses focus was not about memorizing data, but rather learning about having the will to lead and finding the courage to make it happen. A majority of the information I learned from this course came from learning about myself. Through readings, course activities, and various projects, I learned what makes a great leader, but more importantly what traits I possess that will make me a great leader. In order to beRead MoreThe Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence And Leadership Style That Differentiate Effective Leaders9113 Words   |  37 PagesThe purpose of this quantitative correlation study is to examine the degree and extent of a relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership style that differentiate effective leaders. A brief review of the literature was conducted using the following resources, Northcentral University Library (NCU Roadrunner), Google Scholar, Galileo, and ProQuest. Several searches included peer-reviewed publications and academic journals such as the International Journal of Business Management, JournalRead MoreEssay on Financial Report2438 Words   |  10 PagesLEADERSHIP ORGANISATIONS COURSEWORK ASSIGNMENT TUTORIAL Leadership Organisations 6BUS1001 – 0901 Semester A (2012-13) Case Study: ‘Virgin Atlantic and Ryanair’ Question: Using relevant leadership, management and motivation theory, compare and contrast the leadership styles of Richard Branson and Michael O’Leary. Critically discuss the state of affairs in the two organisations that are created or impacted by their leadership styles and behavior. Word Count: 1700 YourRead MoreParticipative Leadership And Empowering Teams2034 Words   |  9 PagesEmpowering teams through participative leadership leads to increased team morale, acceptance, creativity, and retention. Studies have been conducted about including teams in organizational decisions and the effects on team performance. An overview of some of the various styles of leadership and the behaviors associated with them will be provided in this paper. However the focus will be on participative leadership and empowering teams. There is an entire business built upon providing executive coachingRead MoreA Review of Leadership Theories and Possible Changes to Police Leadership10285 Words   |  42 PagesLeadership Theories and Change Running Head: Leadership Theories and Change A Review of Leadership Theories and Possible Changes to Police Leadership Randy L. Conyers University of Central Florida 1 Leadership Theories and Change 2 Abstract Throughout the history of law enforcement, leaders have used many different styles to lead employees. From the early styles of Autocratic and Laissez-Faire to Participative (democratic), Transactional and Transformational leadership. Leadership within policingRead MoreManaging Organizations and Leading People Company and Leadership Profile and SWAT analysis5497 Words   |  22 Pagesï » ¿Task 1: Organization and Leadership Analysis Table of Contents Organization Overview 4 Organization Description 4 The Company Mission 4 The Organization – SEAD 4 The CEO – Jon Shreve 5 Leadership Practices 6 Relationship Between Leadership and Organizational Culture 7 SWOT Analysis 9 Organizational Strengths 9 Technical Skills 9 Strategic Thinking 10 Organizational Weaknesses 11 Under-developed Leadership 11 Failing to deliver quality results 11 Organizational Opportunities 12 Political ForcesRead MoreCase Analysis : Outback Steakhouse2598 Words   |  11 Pagescompany has done in terms of the leadership process (planning, organizing, leading, and controlling). Then after we see how they have handled this process, we will be able to accurately process my views on the issues that may be present or exist in the near future for the company. To get a proper look at each step of the management process, we will look at three examples of each of the four steps in the management process to better understand where the company’s leadership decisions are taking them inRead MoreLeadership and People9624 Words   |  39 PagesPromoting Servant Leadership in the Youth Defining Leading and Leadership Leading is defined as: 1. Influencing others to take action toward specific goal. 2. Guiding and directing on a course, and as serving as a channel. A leader is someone who has commanding influence. Leadership is defined as: 1. It is the process of influencing and directing activities of members toward goal accomplishment. 2. It is about ordinary people who care. People who care enough to get extra ordinaryRead MoreDavid Jones Essay7406 Words   |  30 PagesTable of Contents 1.0 Introduction 3 2.0 Strategic analysis 3 2.1 External Analysis 3 2.1.2 The General Environment 3 2.1.4 Organizations’ competitive position 7 2.1.5 Conclusion from external analysis. 7 2.2 Internal analysis 7 2.2.1 Competitive strengths 7 2.2.2 Strategic Competitive Advantage 7 2.2.3 Conclusion internal analysis 7 2.3 Conclusion on strategic analysis 8 3.0 Strategic direction and strategic objectives 8 3.1 David Jones vision 8 3.2 David Jones missionRead MoreCase Study16130 Words   |  65 PagesMaking Sense of Change Management, 2nd edition Case studies – text and questions Contents Case study 1: Aster Group 3 Case study text: Aster Group 3 Introduction 3 History, culture, orientation 4 Drivers for change 6 Leadership 8 No shotgun wedding 9 The transition period – one year on 11 Project management 12 Organizational development 13 Developing management and leadership capacity and capability 14 Case study questions: Aster Group 17

summary Entrepreneuring as Emancipation - 2020 Words

Entrepreneuring as Emancipation Rindova, Barry, and Ketchen 2009 Entrepreneuring: efforts to bring about new economic, social, institutional, and cultural environments through the actions of an individual or group of individuals → emancipatory process with broad change potential. This view foregrounds three aspects: (1) seeking autonomy, (2) authoring, and (3) making declarations. There exist four main approaches about what entrepreneurs distinguishes from managers: (1) creation of new organizations, (2) high-growth, high-wealth-creating businesses, (3) innovations and creation of new products and markets, and (4) recognition and pursuit of profitable opportunities. The underlying assumption is that wealth creation is a†¦show more content†¦Seeking autonomy Autonomy is a goal of emancipation which is defined as breaking free from the authority of another. The hope for autonomy is one of the main drivers of efforts to become self-employed. Breaking free suggests the desire to make one’s own way in the world, breaking up draws attention to the striving to imagine and create a better world. Analyzing the seeking autonomy aspects of entrepreneuring opens up the following directions in entrepreneurship research: The breaking up aspect of emancipation resonates with the Schumpeterian view of entrepreneurship as â€Å"creative destruction†. However, the emancipatory view goes beyond the Schumpeterian view by attending to both the breaking free and the breaking up. Example: how do entrepreneurial efforts may be affected by different conceptualizations of autonomy? Escaping the default individualist assumptions derived from the disciplines of psychology and economics that have informed it, and theorizing and researching both deeply individualist and social aspects. It involves the breaking up of constraints. The emancipatory perspective sees creative destruction as one of its goals (instead of the mean). Entrepreneuring individuals and groups often solve technological and other problems because they are internally motivated to change their worlds. The emancipatory perspective suggests that understanding the

Evaluation of Waste Tire Devulcanization Technologies Free Essays

string(36) " Heater or Pan process \(Oil law\)\." (INTERNAL REPORT) CENTERPLASTICS COMPOUND ADDITIVES Feb. 2011 – M. S. We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluation of Waste Tire Devulcanization Technologies or any similar topic only for you Order Now Laura Fontana – Centerplastics Enterprise, Ltd Eastern Industrial Road, zip. 516127, Shiwan Town, Boluo Area, Huizhou, DongGuan, GuangDong, P. R. China PPH Chapter 1 – Introduction Approximately 25 potential devulcanization technology researchers and developers were identified throughout the world, however, only a very small number of devulcanization systems are now operating. These are primarily small-capacity systems, which are devulcanizing natural or synthetic rubbers (as opposed to devulcanizing the mixture of rubbers recovered from waste tires). The general types of devulcanization technologies identified and analyzed in the study are shown below. Technology Basis of Processing Zone of Reaction Chemical Chemicals/chemical reactions Surface of particles Ultrasonic Ultrasonic waves Throughout particles Microwave Microwaves Throughout particles Biological Microorganisms Surface of particles Other Mechanical Steam Surface of particles Key findings Reliable information and data on devulcanization of waste tire rubber are difficult to obtain due to proprietary claims, efforts to hide poor or infeasible process performance and product quality, and the limited number of technology researchers and developers and of peer-reviewed data. Reliable data relating waste tire characteristics, devulcanized rubber quality, end product performance, and production costs is scarce.  · Only a very small number of low-capacity devulcanization systems are operating in the United States (at approximately 50 Kg /hr, all RD scale, mechanical, or ultrasonic). No proven commercial capacity units could be found that are currently devulcanizing waste tires, for example, at 500 Kg/hr or greater. The likely reasons include insufficient product quality and high costs of production.  · In terms of the potential of producing high-quality devulcanized rubbers (for example, high strength), the best technology appears to be ultrasonic, based on the current state of the art.  · Devulcanization of single rubbers has much more history than that of multi-rubber mixtures such as waste tires. Only a few companies devulcanize single formulation rubber as a result of captive conversion or merchant scrap recovery from manufacturing. The production of devulcanized rubber from home manufacturing scrap in the U. S represents about 1 to 2 percent of total U. S. rubber consumption.  · The quality of devulcanized single rubbers is higher than that of devulcanized multiple rubbers.  · Devulcanization that depends on surface devulcanization technologies (for example, chemical and mechanical) appears destined in the near term to produce low- or medium-quality devulcanized rubber material. The estimated cost for producing devulcanized materials from waste tires is $0. 3 to $0. 6/Kg  ± 30 percent, if including the cost of crumb rubber feedstock. This range of production costs is significantly greater than that of virgin rubbers. A typical tire compound contains the following constituents: Table 1. Composition of Tires Passenger Tire Constituents Common Materials Natural rubber 14 % Natural rubber Synthetic rubber 27% SBR, butadiene rubber Carbon black 28% Carbon black Steel 14%–15% Steel Fabric, fillers, accelerators, antiozonants, etc. 16%–17% Polyester, nylon, aromatic oil, coumarine resin, silica, bonding agent, stearic acid, ntioxidant, processing chemicals, sulfur, zinc oxide Truck Tire Natural rubber 27% Natural rubber Synthetic rubber 14% Synthetic rubber Carbon black 28% Carbon black Steel 14%–15% Steel Fabric, fillers, accelerators, antiozonants, etc. 16%–17% Polyester, nylon, aromatic oil, stearic acid, antioxidant, wax, processing chemicals, sulfur, zinc oxide Source: Rubber Manufacturers Association, 2004. †¢ Reclaiming is a procedure in which scrap tire rubber or vulcanized rubber waste is converted—using mechanical and thermal energy and chemicals—into a state in which it can be mixed, processed, and vulcanized again. The principle of the process is devulcanization (Franta, 1989). Historically and practically, in the concept of rubber reclaiming, devulcanization consists of the cleavage of intermolecular bonds of the chemical network, such as carbon-sulfur (C-S) and/or sulfur-sulfur (S-S) bonds, with further shortening of the chains also occurring (Rader, 1995). This description of devulcanization is different than that given below, which is limited to chemical interactions involving sulfur atoms. †¢ Reclaim is an interesting raw material as it reduces the production costs of new rubber articles, due to shorter mixing times and lower power consumption. The processing temperature is lower, and the material has a higher dimensional stability during calandering and extrusion due to the remaining three-dimensional network. The most important advantage of cured articles containing reclaim in terms of properties is an improvement of aging resistance. †¢ Devulcanization is the process of cleaving the monosulfidic, disulfidic, and polysulfidic crosslinks (carbon-sulfur or sulfur-sulfur bonds) of vulcanized rubber. Ideally, devulcanized rubber can be revulcanized with or without the use of other compounds. The different types of devulcanization processes also modify other properties of the rubbers. These processes cause diminution of some properties over those of the parent rubber. Ideally, devulcanization would yield a product that could serve as a substitute for virgin rubber, both in terms of properties and in terms of cost of manufacture. Polymers can be divided into two groups: thermoplastics and thermosetting materials. Thermoplastics soften when heated, making it possible to (re-)shape them at higher temperatures. Thermosetting materials, like rubbers, are crosslinked on heating and therefore cannot be softened or remodeled by raising the temperature. Therefore, thermosets are more difficult to recycle compared to thermoplastics. The three-dimensional network has to be broken in order to make the material (re-)processable: the so-called reclaiming process. In this process, either sulfur crosslinks connecting the polymer chains or carbon-carbon bonds in the polymer backbone are broken. The first mechanism is preferred, as the backbone of the polymer remains intact. Scission can be obtained by heat, shear or chemical reactions. Basically, processes of rupturing the rubber network by crosslink or main-chain scission can be classified into five main groups. †¢ Thermal reclaiming; †¢ Thermo-mechanical reclaiming; †¢ Mechano-chemical reclaiming; †¢ Reclaiming by radiation, and †¢ Microbial reclaiming. In actual practice, combinations of thermal and mechanical reclaiming are mostly used, with in some cases the addition of a devulcanization aid for chemical reclaiming. 1. 1-Thermal Reclaiming For this kind of processes, heat (often combined with addition of chemicals) is used to break the sulfur bonds and thus to plasticize the rubber. Hall patented in 1858 one of the oldest and most simple processes in the rubber reclaiming industry, the Heater or Pan process (Oil law). You read "Evaluation of Waste Tire Devulcanization Technologies" in category "Papers" In this process, finely ground natural rubber powder is mixed with oils and reclaiming agents and treated with high or medium pressure steam at temperatures varying from 170 °C to 200 °C. The reclaiming time is long and the homogeneity of the reclaim is low, but this process is able to reclaim a large number of polymers: natural rubber (NR), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), chloroprene rubber (CR), acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) and butyl rubber (IIR) and the equipment is rather inexpensive. The use of the heater or pan process became less popular after Marks patented the Digester or Alkali process in 1899. The fibers of the rubber scrap, remnants of the tire carcass, were first removed by mixing it with alkali, water, plasticizing oils and, if needed, chemical peptizers. The mixture was heated in a jacketed, agitator equipped autoclave to 180-210 °C. The most important disadvantage of this process is the pollution generated by the chemicals. Modifications of this process minimized the pollution, but increased the reaction times. Processes with short reaction times are for example the High Pressure Steam processes or the Engelke process. In the first process, a fiber-free, coarse ground rubber is mixed with reclaiming agents, and reclaiming is done in a high-pressure autoclave at approximately 280 °C. In the latter process, coarse ground rubber scrap is mixed with plasticizing oils and peptizers and is put into small autoclaves. The material is heated to very high temperatures for a short period of 15 minutes, after which it is lead through refiners (mills with very narrow gaps) and strainers. . 1. 1 – Steam With or Without Chemicals (Digester, DD-CR, HTDD-CR) Steam devulcanization of crumb rubber uses a steam vessel equipped with an agitator for continuous stirring of the crumb rubber while steam is being applied. There are two variants of the basis steam process, namely, â€Å"wet† and â€Å"dry. † The wet process uses caustic and water mixed with the rubber crumb, while the dry proce ss uses only steam. If necessary, various reclaiming oils may be added to the mixture in the reaction vessel. In one case, a wet process using diaryl disulfide and reclaiming oils with saturated steam at 190 °C (374 °F) was fed finely ground NR and synthetic rubber scraps. A charge of about 440 lbs. was partially devulcanized after 15 to 17 hours of processing. This process required 12 hours at ambient temperature for pre-treatment and 3 to 5 hours for steam or high temperature treatment (Adhikari, et al. , 2000). The dry process digester has the advantage of generating less pollution than the wet process. Scrap rubber containing natural and synthetic rubbers can be reclaimed by the steam digestion process. Reclaiming oil used for this process has molecular weights between 200 and 1000, consisting of benzene, alkyl benzene, and alkylate indanes. A generic processing diagram for steam devulcanization is shown in Figure A. Figure A. Schematic Diagram of a Steam Devulcanization System Devulcanized Rubber Dehydrating System Steam Reactor Rubber Crumb Chemical(s) Liquid By-Product 1. 2 – Thermo-Mechanical Reclaiming The thermo-mechanical reclaiming processes make use of shearing forces to plasticize the rubber. Energy is introduced into the materials, resulting in a significant temperature increase, high enough to cause thermal degradation. The Lancaster-Banbury process is one of the oldest processes. Fiber-free coarse ground rubber scrap is mixed with reclaiming agents and sheared in a high speed, high-pressure internal mixer. When a continuously working, multiscrew devulcanizer is used instead of the internal mixer, the process is called the Ficker reclaiming process. One of the first continuous reclaiming processes is the so-called reclaimator process. This is basically a single screw extruder that has been adapted to reclaim fibre-free rubber scrap in very short extrusion times. The short extrusion times make this method suitable for SBR, that tends to harden when longer recycling times are applied. Another mechanical reclaiming process is the De-Link process. In this process finely ground rubber powder is mixed with the De-Link masterbatch (DeVulc) : a zinc salt of dimethyldithiocarbamate and mercaptobenzothiazole in a molar ratio of 1:1 to 1:12, dispersed in thiols and activated by stearic acid, zinc oxide and sulfur. Advantages of the process are its simplicity and the fact that standard rubber equipment is used. No evidence is available to demonstrate that the De-Link process is used beyond laboratory or pilot scale. The Toyota process is another development of mechanical reclaiming. In this process a mixture of ground rubber, virgin rubber, oils and a devulcanization aid is masticated on a two-roll mill or in an extruder. Mechanical devulcanization is achieved through the repeated deformation of rubber particles under specific conditions of temperature and pressure. The result is a devulcanized rubber, ready for further processing. Toyota developed another continuous process, Toyota Gosei (TG) combining pulverization, reclaiming and deodorization. The rubber waste has to be ground to a particle size of 5-10 mm before it can be fed into a â€Å"modular screw-type reactor† with a pulverization zone and a reaction zone. The operating temperature is in the range of 100-300 °C and 100-900 rpm screw speeds are applied, the process requires about 100 Kw (kilowatts) to process 200 to 300 kg (kilograms)/hr of rubber, or approximately 0. 4 kW/kg. By manipulating screw configuration and rotational speed, and processing temperature, researchers are able to control the duration of the treatment. In this way they can, to some extent, control the properties of the devulcanizate. The TG process has been primarily, if not exclusively, used to devulcanize specific types of rubber compounds, such as NR and SBR. 1. 3 – Mechano-Chemical Reclaiming Mixing of the rubber powder with a peptizer (chemicals used to reduce the viscosity of NR) and a reclaiming agent prior to the mechanical breakdown of the material improves the reclaiming process. The devulcanization aid is supposed to selectively break the sulfur crosslinks in the rubber network. This chemical breakdown is combined with input of thermal and/or mechanical energy, as the rate of this process is sufficiently high only at higher temperatures. The most common devulcanization aids are disulfides, e. g. aryl disulfides or diphenyl sulfides, thiophenols and their zinc salts and mercaptanes. These chemical compounds are radical scavengers: they react with the radicals generated by chain- or crosslink scission and prevent recombination of the molecules. Typical concentrations for the reclaiming agents are 0. 5 to 4 wt%. Suitable peptizers are aromatic and naphthenic oils with a high boiling point. Figure B. Schematic Diagram of a Chemical Devulcanization System Devulcanization Agent Rubber Crumb Mixer Heated Extruder Devulcanized Filter Dryer Rubber Liquid By-Product Unfortunately, a detailed accounting of test materials, performance parameters, and conditions is lacking, thus inhibiting the extent of interpretation of the data. Comparisons of data are primarily limited to comparing the properties of virgin rubbers with compounds containing the virgin and devulcanized material at concentrations of about 30 percent devulcanized material. As shown by the data in the table, the properties of the mixtures containing devulcanized material are in general moderately lower than those of their virgin counterparts. The reported data reflect two different types of chemical devulcanization technologies. Table 2. Properties of Waste Tire Rubber Devulcanized Using Chemical or Chemical/Mechanical Technology Generic Technology Technology Surrogate Test Rubber Compound s % Devulc (or Ground) Mat’l Mooney Viscosity (ML-4 @ 212 °F) Tensile Strengt h (lbs/in2) 300% Modulus (lbs/ in2) Elongation to Break (%) Chemical STI-K Polymers DeLinka NR 0 61. 9 4,270 1,987 534 NR w/devulc NR 30 72. 3 4,020 2,151 489 Virgin SBR (1520) 0 96. 6 3,880 3,059 358 SBR (1520) w/devulc SBR 30 109. 2 3,580 2,923 345 Chemical/ Mechanical LandStar/ Guangzhou Research Instituteb NR 100 28. 4 680 SR 100 17. 2 514 AMRc Powder (devulc. additive) 100 23. 9 640 Tread Tire Compoundd 0 20. 3 772 28. 6 19. 7 628 Light Duty Truck Tire Compounde 0 23. 8 536 28. 6 20. 5 500 1. 4 – Reclaiming by Irradiation Bond type Dissociation energy (KJ/mol) C-C 349 C-S 302 S-S 273 Polysulfidic 253 Table 3. Typical bond energies 1. 4. 1 – Ultrasonic Rubber devulcanization by using ultrasonic energy was first discussed in Okuda and Hatano (1987). It was a batch process in which a small piece of vulcanized rubber was devulcanized using 50 kHz ultrasonic waves after treatment for 20 minutes. The process apparently could break down C-S and S-S bonds, but not carbon-carbon (C-C) bonds. The properties of the revulcanized rubber were found to be very similar to those of the original vulcanizates. One continuous process for devulcanization of rubbers is based on the use of high-power ultrasound electromagnetic radiation. This is a suitable way to recycle waste tires and waste rubbers. The ultrasonic waves, at certain levels, in the presence of pressure and heat, can quickly break up the three-dimensional network in crosslinked, vulcanized rubber. The process of ultrasonic devulcanization is very fast, simple, efficient, and it is free of solvents and chemicals. The rate of devulcanization is approximately one second. This may lead to the preferential breakage of sulfidic crosslinks in vulcanized rubbers. (Isayev, 1993; Yu. Levin, et al. , 1996; Isayev, et al. , 1997; Yun, et al. , 2001; Yun Isayev, April 2003). Under a license from the University of Akron for the ultrasonic devulcanization technology, NFM Company of Massillon, Ohio, has built a prototype of the machine for ultrasonic devulcanization of tire and rubber products (Boron, et al. 1996; Boron, et al. , 1999). It was reported that retreaded truck tires containing 15 and 30 weight percent (percent by weight) of ultrasonicallydevulcanized carbon black-filled SBR had passed the preliminary dynamic endurance test (Boron, et al. , 1999). Extensive studies on the ultrasonic devulcanization of rubbers, and some preliminary studies on ultrasonic decrosslinking of crosslink ed plastics, showed that this continuous process allows recycling of various types of rubbers and thermosets (Isayev, 1993; Hong Isayev, 2002 (pp. 160–168); Shim, et al. 2002; Shim Isayev, 2003; Gonzalez-de Los Santas, et al. , 1999). As a consequence of the process, ultrasonically-devulcanized rubber becomes soft, therefore enabling this material to be reprocessed, shaped, and revulcanized in very much the same way as virgin rubber. This new technology has been used successfully in the laboratory to devulcanize ground tire rubber (commonly referred to in the industry as GRT) (Isayev, et al. , 1995; Yun, et al. , 2001; Boron, et al. , 1996), unfilled and filled rubbers N (Hong Isayev, 2001; Yu. Levin, et al. , 1996; Isayev, et al. , 1997; Diao, et al. 1998; Shim, et al. , September 2002; Ghose Isayev, 2003), guayule rubber (Gonzalez-de Los Santas, et al. , 1999), fluoroelastomer, ethylene vinyl acetate foam, and crosslinked polyethylene (Isayev, 1993; Isayev Chen, 1994). After revulcanization, rubber samples exhibit good mechanical properties, which in some cases are comparable to or exceeding those of virgin vulcanizates. Structural studies of ultrasonically-treated rubber show that the breakup of chemical crosslinks is accompanied by the partial degradation of the rubber chain; that is, the C-C bonds (Isayev, et al. , 1995; Tukachinsky, et al. 1996; Yu. Levin, et al. , 1997 (pp. 641–649); Yushanov, et al. , 1998). The degree of degradation of C-C bonds can be substantial, depending on conditions. The mechanism of rubber devulcanization under ultrasonic treatment is presently not well understood, unlike the mechanism of the degradation of long-chain polymer in solutions irradiated with ultrasound (Suslick, 1988). Ultrasonic devulcanization also alters the revulcanization kinetics of rubbers. The revulcanization of devulcanized SBR appeared to be essentially different from those of virgin SBR (Yu. Levin, et al. , 1997, pp. 120–128). The induction period is shorter or absent for revulcanization of devulcanized SBR. This is also true for other unfilled and carbon black-filled rubbers such as ground rubber tire (GRT), SBR, natural rubber (NR), ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), and butadiene rubber (BR) cured by sulfur-containing curative systems, but not for silicone rubber cured by peroxide. Ultrasonically-devulcanized rubbers consist of sol and gel. The gel portion is typically soft and has significantly lower crosslink density than that of the original vulcanizate. Due to the presence of sol and soft gel, the devulcanized rubber can flow and is subject to shaping. Crosslink density and gel fraction of ultrasonically-devulcanized rubbers were found to correlate by a universal master curve (Yushanov, et al. , 1996; Diao, et al. , 1999; Yushanov, et al. , 1998). This curve is unique for every elastomer due to its unique chemical structure. In a comparative analysis of ultrasonically reclaimed unfilled SBR, NR and EPDM rubbers, it was found that it was more difficult to reclaim EPDM than NR and SBR. Reclaiming of EPDM roofsheeting resulted in a good quality reclaim, which after revulcanization showed more or less equal mechanical properties compared to the virgin compound. The surface smoothness of the revulcanized compounds could be controlled by the process conditions. Most companies marketing ultrasonic devulcanization technologies are utilizing very similar technologies involving cold feed extruders and varying physical arrangements of ultrasonic equipment. Ultrasonic devulcanization technology is actually composed of a â€Å"devulcanization system†Ã¢â‚¬â€ namely, extrusion and ultrasonic processing. Two key differences in some cases are the equipment and materials used to generate the ultrasonic energy required for the process, and the positioning of the transducer(s) relative to the extruder. Two different arrangements of ultrasonic devulcanization systems are shown in Figures C and D. In this type of devulcanization system, size-reduced rubber particles are loaded into a hopper and are subsequently fed into an extruder. The extruder mechanically pushes and pulls the rubber. This mechanical action serves to heat the rubber particles and softens the rubber. As the softened rubber is transported through the extruder cavity, the rubber is exposed to ultrasonic energy. The resulting combination of heat, pressure, and mechanical mastication is sufficient to achieve varying degrees of devulcanization. The time constant of the devulcanization process takes place in seconds. Essentially all of the rubber entering the process is discharged from the extruder in semi-solid product stream. Process losses would be primarily those due to emissions of fine particulates or of gases, if any, generated due to the mechanical and thermal processes occurring during the devulcanization process. After exiting through the extruder die, the rubber is passed through a cooling bath and then dried. Figure C. Schematic Diagram of an Ultrasonic Devulcanization System Showing a Mid- Extruder Location for the Ultrasonic Subsystem Ultrasonic Processing Zone Cooling Bath Devulcanized Rubber Extruder Rubber Crumb Feed Hopper Figure D. Schematic Diagram of an Ultrasonic Devulcanization System Showing the Ultrasonic Subsystem Located at the Discharge End of the Extruder Ultrasonic Processing Zone Cooling Bath Devulcanized Rubber Feed Hopper Extruder Rubber Crumb Table 4. Properties of Waste Tire Rubber Devulcanized Using Ultrasonic Technology Technology Surrogate Test Rubber Compound s % Devulc or (Ground) Mat’l Mooney Viscosity (ML-4 @ 212 °F) Tensile Strength (lbs/in2) 100% Modulus (lbs/ in2) 300% Modulus (lbs/ in2) Elongation to Break (%) U of Akron SBR 1848a 0 2,415 740 780 SBR (1848) w/devulc SBRa 10 1,075 790 540 SBR (1848) w/whole train reclaima (10) 1,940 760 660 SBR (1848) w/30 mesh buffingsa (10) 1,440 780 480 100% NR (SMR CV60) 0% SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 0 3,263 116 670 NR (SMR CV60) 25% SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 0 1,885 123 600 NR (SMR CV60) w/devulc SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 25 580 123 380 NR (SMR CV60) 50% SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 0 406 131 390 Technology Surrogate Test Rubber Compound s % Devulc or (Ground) Mat’l Mooney Viscosity (ML-4 @ 12 °F) Tensile Strength (lbs/in2) 100% Modulus (lbs/ in2) 300% Modulus (lbs/ in2) Elongation to Break (%) NR (SMR CV60) w/devulc SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 50 363 123 320 NR (SMR CV60) 75% SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 0 363 145 295 NR (SMR CV60) w/devulc SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 75 276 131 250 100% SBR (23. 5% bound sty rene, and Duraden 706)b 0 290 152 200 100% SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Duraden 706)b 100 290 138 180 Table 5. Percent Change from Virgin with Selected Devulcanization Rubber Formulations Test Rubber Compounds (grade) Parts or % % Devulc. or (Groun d) Mat’l. Hardnes s Shore Tear Strengt h Tensile Strengt h 100% Modulu s 300% Modulu s Elongatio n to Break Chemical STI-K Polymers DeLinka NR w/devulc NR 30 -5. 9% 8. 3% -8. 4% SBR (1520) w/devulc SBR 30 -7. 7% -4. 4% -3. 6% Kyoto Universityb Truck tire (93 NR+ 7 BR) 84 NR+ 6 BR + 20 devulc 18 8. 1% -2. 3% 2. 6% 0. 0% 74 NR+ 6 BR + 40 devulc 33 12. 9% -11. 9% 28. 2% -17. 4% 65 NR + 5 BR + 60 devulc 46 11. 3% -19. 1% 23. 1% -13. 0% LandStar/Guangzhou R Ic 100 SIR 10 + 50 devulc SIR vs. Case 1 33 4. 3% -23. 7% 6. 7% -6. 7% SIR vs. Case 2 33 6. 5% -23. 0% 11. 5% -8. 6% Tread Tire Compound 0 NR + 30 SR + 20 CIS-BR +40 AMR 28. 6 6. 7% -17. 3% -3. 0% -18. 7% Light Duty Truck Tire Compound 30 NR + 70 SR + 0 CIS-BR + 40 AMR 28. 6 1. 6% -10. 9% -13. 9% -6. 7% Retread Tire Compound c65 NR + 35 SR +40 AMR 28. 6 6. 3% -8. 6% -10. 3% -16. 8% Ultrasonic University of Akrond Versus Akrochem SBR (1848) SBR w/devulc SBR 10 -55. 5% 6. 8% -30. 8% Test Rubber Compounds (grade) Parts or % % Devulc. or (Groun d) Mat’l. Hardnes s Shore Tear Strengt h Tensile Strengt h 100% Modulu s 300% Modulu s Elongatio n to Break SBR w/whole Tire Reclaim 10 -19. 7% 2. 7% -15. 4% SBR w/30 Mesh Buffings 10 -40. 4% 5. 4% -38. % Natural Rubber and SBR versus devulc Base 100% NR (SMR CV60) 0% SBR (23. 5% bound styrene, and Firestone Duraden 706) 0 Add 25% SBR, 75% NR 0 -42. 2% 6. 3% -10. 4% Devulc SBR replaces SBR 25% devulc SBR, 75% NR 25 -69. 2% 0. 0% -36. 7% 50% devulc SBR, 50% NR 50 -10. 7% -5. 6% -17. 9% 75% devulc SBR, 25% NR 75 -24. 0% -10. 0% -15. 3% SBR versus devulc SBR 100% devulc SBR 100 0. 0% -9. 5% -10. 0% Heavy carbon-blacked rubber is the hardest to devulcanize, and silica, or other mineral-filled EDPM, is the easiest. Reincorporation of the devulcanized rubber is typically in the 20 to 40 percent range. Devulcanized single-product rubber applications are wide ranging. The reclaimed product may be reintroduced into the same end product or one with more tolerant performance characteristics for the devulcanized rubber. Devulcanized rubber seems to have advantages in bonding, strength, and tread integrity above the properties of crumb rubber, which acts only as a â€Å"rubber†-like filler. According to one developer of a devulcanization process, about 3 to 10 percent of the final product can be blended into virgin material before performance properties are affected. Variations of a few percent are reported by developers of devulcanization when they vary process run conditions. Run-to-run variations are normally acceptable. Devulcanized single rubber products have a much lower degree of degradation than multiple rubber mixtures with devulcanized rubber. Virgin single-grade SBR—or natural rubber replacement with devulcanized material shown by the STI-K and the University of Akron datasets —has, at worst, a reduction of 10 percent in tensile strength, modulus, or elongation. In some cases, the addition of devulcanized rubber causes a major reduction in performance of some properties, along with improvements in one or two properties (hardness and modulus). Because the modulus is the measure of deformation—that is, tension (stretching), compression (crushing), flexing (bending), or torsion (twisting). Similarly, the increase in hardness could be an improvement or detraction, depending on the application. The devulcanized rubber properties displayed are not necessarily optimized for a specific end use. Formulators will likely be able to incorporate devulcanized rubber along with other formulation components to achieve a higher level of final product performance. Key product performance variables are level of contamination, number of rubber types in the rubber mixtures, and additives used by the formulations. The effect of additives was discussed previously under â€Å"Product Characteristics. † The number of types of rubber in waste tires is one of the most important factors affecting quality of devulcanized waste tire rubber. Optimizing a devulcanization process is very difficult when more than one type of rubber is involved. Depending on the process used, process conditions, the material, and the blending level of the devulcanized rubber, most properties will be reduced by a few percent to more than two-thirds of those of the virgin material. In situations where the devulcanized rubber properties are within 10 percent of the original rubber material, blending would seem to be an attractive opportunity that offers the potential of adding a low-cost recycled substitute. The best operating model for devulcanizers of single rubber formulation is a dedicated devulcanization line (or long run) of specific rubber. Smaller volumes of single formulations require incurring extra costs for downtime and lost product caused by the cleanout between runs. The devulcanized rubber itself and some of its additives and fillers—such as carbon black— presumably add value. These fillers take the place of new additives and fillers that would otherwise be necessary. 1. 4. 2 – Microwave Microwave technology has also been proposed to devulcanize waste rubber (Fix, 1980; Novotny, et al. 1978). This process applies the heat very quickly and uniformly on the waste rubber. The method employs the application of a controlled amount of microwave energy to devulcanize a sulfur-vulcanized elastomer— containing polar groups or components—to a state in which it could be compounded and revulcanized into useful products such as hoses. The process requ ires extraordinary or substantial physical properties. On the basis of the relative bond energies of C-C, C-S, and S-S bonds, the scission of the S-S and carbon-sulfur crosslinks appeared to take place. However, the material to be used in the microwave process must be polar enough to accept energy at a rate sufficient to generate the heat necessary for devulcanization. This method is a batch process and requires expensive equipment. Figure E. Schematic Diagram of a Microwave Devulcanization System Rubber Crumb Microwave Unit Devulcanized Rubber Cooling System 1. 5 – Microbial Reclaiming Thiobacillus-bacteria are able to oxidise the sulfur in polysulfonic bonds to sulphate. This reaction is limited to a surface layer of the rubber with a thickness of less than 1 ? and the oxidation takes several weeks. The thiophilic bacteria Sulfolobus Acidocaldarius is able to split carbonsulfur bonds in a stepwise oxidation reaction of the carbon-bound sulfur into a sulfoxide, a sulfone and finally to a sulphate8, 9. The disadvantage of these processes is the low devulcanization rate. Apparently, these types of biological devulcanization processes are exclusively or primarily limited to the surface layers of the elastomers (Christiansson, et al. , 1998). This circumstance may explain the overall low rates of desulfurization based on total mass processed. Figure F. Schematic Diagram of Biological Devulcanization System Microorganisms and Host Media Mixer/ Reactor Rubber Crumb Devulcanized Rubber Dryer Filter By-Product Gases Liquid By-Product Chapter2 – Cost Analysis Given the lack of information in the literature, the cost estimates are based on a synthesis of information and data from multiple sources for a given generic type of technology; The analysis was generally performed by determining the costs (capital and operating and maintenance) of the processes and equipment described in the available literature. The cost analyses were conducted for three technologies that use different processing approaches: chemical, ultrasonic, and mechanical. * The key processing elements of each of these technologies have been previously described in this report, and they serve as the primary basis of estimating capital and operating and maintenance costs. The data in Table 6 summarize the capital costs and operating and maintenance costs for the technologies analyzed. The data for the capital cost analysis include an allowance for engineering services for the construction of the facility. The information shows that the capital costs for the processes vary from about $92,000 to about $166,000. ** Insufficient technical information and data were found during the study to enable reliable cost analyses for other devulcanization technologies. Table 6. Estimated Unit Costs for the Production of Devulcanized Rubber Item Mechanical Chemical Ultrasonic Capacity (lb/hr) 100 75 75 Capital Cost ($) 92,000 166,000 163,000 O Cost ($) 135,000 172,000 136,000 Amortized Capital and O ($) 143,000 186,000 150,000 Amortized Unit Cost ($/lb) 0. 7 1. 2 1. 0 Interest rate: 6% per year; Amortization period: 20 years Similarly, the data in the table indicate that the operating and maintenance costs for facilities of this type range from about $135,000 to $172,000. The operating cost estimates include the cost of crumb rubber feedstock for each of the processes. Based on the relative small size of the facilities, the costs of the rental of a building for processing in operating and maintenance are included. This eliminated the cost of building a structure. As shown in the Table, the estimated amortized costs for producing devulcanized rubber are: $1. 0/lb for the ultrasonic process, $1. 2/lb for the chemical process, and $0. 7/lb for the mechanical process. The analysis used an interest rate of 6 percent per year and an amortization period of 20 years. Due to uncertainties represented by the lack of detailed technical data and operating history for the technologies, the accuracy of the cost estimates is +/- 30 percent. As mentioned earlier, these costs reflect production at low capacities. Some reduction in unit cost would likely occur due to economies of larger scale production. However, estimating reduction in unit cost is difficult because of the lack of data relating to production costs to different levels of throughput capacity for particular devulcanization technologies. For the size of operations considered in this analysis, labor costs are a substantial portion of the production costs. It is very difficult, however, to estimate the magnitude of any potential reductions in unit labor costs that might occur if processing capacities were increased substantially. All circumstances considered, any estimates of commercial production costs for devulcanization of waste tire rubber are highly speculative at best. The best estimate of the study team is that perhaps production costs could be reduced by 25 to 30 percent if processing capacities were increased by a factor of approximately 5 to 10. The estimates of processing costs developed in this study do not include the costs of pollution control. The chapter lists the types of emissions that could be expected. The difficulty of permitting such a process and the cost of compliance with environmental regulations may comprise a significant barrier to the implementation of this technology. Conceivably, pollution control costs could add 10 to 30 percent to the cost of devulcanization. The difficulty of permitting—and the cost—would be a function of the type of devulcanization technology, the processing rates, and other factors. In general, the expectation is that the cost of environmental control systems for chemical devulcanization systems would be greater than that for ultrasonic or mechanical processes. The composition of rubber and additives that are used in rubber compounds in the manufacture of vulcanized rubber can and do have a dramatic effect on the properties of materials manufactured from devulcanized rubber. Apparently, the inferior properties of some poorly (inadequately) devulcanized rubber can be compensated for by the addition of chemicals and the adjustment of operating conditions, among other remedies. In many cases in the literature, this situation is not addressed or discussed. Consequently, comparing devulcanization technologies is difficult. From most of the literature descriptions of the processes, what happens to the sulfur and other vulcanization chemicals during the various processes is unclear. Chapter 3 – Environmental Analysis Little information is available in the literature on the environmental effects associated with waste tire devulcanization technologies. The lack of information apparently exists because business developers and researchers have concentrated their efforts primarily on technology improvements and achieving satisfactory properties for devulcanized rubber, an estimation of emission rates and a detailed environmental analysis are therefore not possible. However, using data and information from some other types of tire manufacturing processes (for example, extrusion of rubber) and the characteristics of vehicle tires, a qualitative analysis was performed. The environmental analysis described subsequently is limited to chemical and ultrasonic devulcanization and assumes that control of emissions would be required. 3. 1 – Chemical technology Chemical devulcanization processes are usually batch processes that involve mixing crumb rubber with chemical reactants at a specific temperature and pressure. Once the design reaction time has elapsed, the contents are then rinsed, filtered, and dried to remove any remaining unwanted chemical components. The product can then be bagged or otherwise processed for resale. A block flow diagram of a generic chemical devulcanization process is illustrated in Figure G, showing the raw material feed is crumb rubber. The crumb rubber is mixed with one or more devulcanization agents. Chemical agents identified as devulcanization agents are listed in Table 8. During processing in the batch reactor, vapors are released that must be collected and treated before release to the ambient atmosphere. Typical types of vapors that might be emitted from a batch reactor are listed in Table 9. The chemicals that would be vented from the batch reactor are dependent on the characteristics of the waste tire feedstock and on the chemical agent(s) used in devulcanizing the crumb rubber. For example, if disulfides are used in the process, they could result in formation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or methyl or other mercaptans (RSH). If the chemical agent orthodichlorobenzene is used, chlorinated hydrocarbons could potentially be released in the form of air emissions. Methyl iodide is volatile, and if used as a devulcanization agent, it could be vaporized. Since tire manufacturing utilizes zinc oxide and zinc carbonate, chemical devulcanization might also produce airborne metal particulates. Once the batch is fully processed, the reactor is vented. The vent gases are treated prior to release to the atmosphere. The vapors cannot be treated by vapor phase carbon because these chemicals will plate out and blind the carbon, making it ineffective. Instead, the vapor from the batch reactor needs to be thermally oxidized. At the high exit temperatures, typically as high as 2000 °F (1100 °C), the thermal oxidizer vent gases need to be cooled in a quench tower to approximately 300 °F (150 °C). Then, to remove any metals or other particulate, the vent gases are piped to a baghouse. Because of the high thermal oxidizer temperatures, methyl mercaptans (RSH) or hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from the crumb rubber is oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2). Therefore, downstream of the baghouse, a scrubber is required to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2), as shown in Figure G. Scrubbed vent gases are then released to the atmosphere. In addition to the scrubber vent gases described above, liquid waste is generated from the scrubber. This liquid stream contains sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). This liquid waste can be disposed in receiving waters such as a river, stream, or bay. However, discharging to receiving waters will require a significant amount of treatment equipment and eventually a permit. As seen in Figure G, the devulcanized rubber is moved from the batch reactor to a separator by a heated extruder. Liquid that drips off the devulcanized rubber is removed in the separator and eliminated by feeding it to the same thermal oxidizer as the vent gases from the batch reactor. After the liquid has dripped off the devulcanized rubber in the separator, any remaining moisture is removed in the dryer. Fired dryers are typically fueled by natural gas burners. Dryer vent gases are piped to the common thermal oxidizer. Based on the concentration of solids in the scrubber effluent, processing the scrubber effluent through a filter press to dewater the solids may be necessary and cost-effective. Filter-pressed dewatered solids are called â€Å"filter cake. Filter cake might require disposal in a hazardous waste site. Even though the waste disposal site may accept the scrubber effluent water, the economics may favor installation and use of a filter press. This is necessary to dewater the solids due to the high cost of disposal of liquid waste. Figure G. Block Flow Diagram of a Chemical Devulcan ization System Solids H2O Batch Reactor Heated Extruder Separator Crumb Rubber Devulcanization Agent 300 ° F Liquids Devulcanized Rubber Dryer Natural Gas Vapors Thermal Oxidizer Quench Tower Baghouse Natural Gas Scrubber 2000 ° F 300 ° F H2O Air Emissions Air Emissions to Atmosphere Effluent Water Table 7. Tire Raw Materials Polymers Antiozonants Natural Rubber (polyisoprene) 2,2,4-trimethyl-1,2-dihydroquinoline (polymer) Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) n,n-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-pphenylenediamine cis-Polybutadiene copolymer paraffinic wax Vulcanizing Agents Antioxidants Sulfur Alkylphenols Tetra-methyl thiurame sulfide Resorcinol Accelerators 2,6-Diterbutylhydroquinone Diphenylguanidine Retarders 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole n-Cyclohexylthiophthalimide n-Cyclohexyl-2-benzothiazolylsulfenamide Plasticizers 2-(n-Morpholinyl)-mercaptobenzothiazole Aliphatic oil Hexamethylenetetramine Aromatic oil Activators Naphthenic oil Zinc oxide Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate Zinc carbonate Extenders Stearic acid Silica gel Carbon black Table 8. Chemical Agents Used in Chemical Tire Devulcanization Processes Triphenyl phosphine Sodium di-n-butyl phosphite Thiol-amine reagents (specifically propane-thiol/piperidine, dithiothreitol, and hexane-lthiol) Lithium aluminum hydride Phenyl lithium Methyl iodide Hydroxide with quaternary ammonium chloride as a catalyst Orthodichlorobenzene Diphenyldisulphide Diallyl disulfide Toluene, naphtha, benzene, and/or cyclohexane, etc. in the presence of sodium Diamly disulfide Dibenzyl disulfide Diphenyl disulfide Bis(alkoxy aryl) disulfides Butyl mercaptan and thiopenols Xylene thiols Phenol sulfides and disulfides Alkyl phenol sulfides (for SBR) N,N-dialkyl aryl amine sulfides (for SBR in neutral or alkaline solutions) 3. 2 – Ultrasonic technology Devulcanization by ultrasonic methods may be a continuous process (see Figure H). As the figure illustrates, crumb rubber is loaded into a hopper and is subsequently fed into an extruder. The extruder mechanically pushes and pulls the rubber. This mechanical action serves to heat the rubber particles and soften the rubber. As the softened rubber is transported through the extruder cavity, the rubber is exposed to ultrasonic energy. The resulting combination of ultrasonic energy, along with the heat, pressure, and mechanical mastication, is sufficient to achieve varying degrees of devulcanization. The exposure time to the ultrasonic energy is only seconds. Essentially all of the rubber entering the process is discharged from the extruder in a semi-solid product stream. Process losses would be primarily emissions of fine particulate or of gases, if any, resulting from the mechanical and thermal applications occurring during devulcanization. Since the typical operating temperature of an ultrasonic devulcanization reactor is about 230 °F (110 °C), less vapor emission would be expected than from chemical devulcanization. Furthermore, since no chemicals are added to break the sulfur bonds that caused vulcanization to occur, there would likely be lower air emissions. After exiting through the extruder die, the rubber is passed through a cooling bath and then dried. Vented vapors would need to be treated by one of two methods. One method would be to use a small thermal oxidizer. The design of the thermal oxidizer, baghouse, and scrubber would be similar to that described previously for chemical devulcanization. However, the physical size of the oxidizer would be smaller, and the baghouse and scrubber would be larger. A second method to treat the vent gases exiting the ultrasonic devulcanization reactor would be use of vapor phase carbon. In this method, due to the lower operating temperatures of the ultrasonic process, vent gas exiting the ultrasonic zone would have to be heated above the dew point temperature. If this elevation in temperature is not accomplished, the vent gases could condense on the surface of the carbon and thus blind the bed. In other words, adsorption sites on the surface of the carbon would be ineffective, and vent gases would exit the carbon bed untreated. If vapor phase carbon were to be used, the capital cost would be less than that of a thermal oxidizer. However, carbon is not very efficient. Weight loading can be approximately 10 weight percent—in other words, adsorbing ten pounds of vent gas contaminants for every 100 pounds of carbon used. Use of carbon will have a relatively high operating cost. Also, the disposal of spent carbon can be very expensive. This is especially true if the spent carbon requires disposal at a hazardous waste disposal site. Even if the carbon is regenerated on-site, adsorption efficiency decreases after each regeneration. Typically, carbon can only be regenerated ten times. For illustration purposes, Figure H indicates the use of vapor phase carbon. Devulcanized rubber exiting the ultrasonic processing zone has to be cooled. A common method of reducing the rubber temperature is a cooling bath. The volume of cooling water used would be significant. Cooling water may become ontaminated from the process; this effluent water leaving the cooling bath has to be treated. If an air cooler such as fin fans is used in lieu of water in the cooling bath, the volume of effluent liquid would be reduced. Another alternative would be to use a closed-loop cooling system, where the cooling water is cooled and returned to the process for reuse. If there is a buildup of contaminants, a small slipstream could be taken off and treated in a POTW, greatly reducing the amount of effluent that would otherwise require treatment. Figure H. Block Flow Diagram of an Ultrasonic Devulcanization System Ultrasonic Processing Zone Cooling Bath Devulcanized Rubber Feed Hopper Extruder Crumb Rubber Cooling Water Supply Effluent Water Heater Air Emissions Baghouse Carbon Air Emissions to Atmosphere Table 9. Potential Types of Chemical Compounds Emitted by Chemical and Ultrasonic Devulcanization Technologies Compound Probable Source Benzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Methylcyclohexane Plasticizers: Na phthemic oil Toluene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Heptane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil 4-Vinylcyclohexene Polymers: Natural Rubber (polyisoprene), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), cis- Polybutadiene Ethylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Octane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil p-Xylene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Styrene Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) Nonane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil 1,4-Cyclohexadiene-1-isopropyl-4- methyl Polymers: Natural Rubber (polyisoprene) Isopropylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Cyclohexene-1-methyl-3-(1- methylvinyl) Polymers: Natural Rubber (polyisoprene) Propylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Benzaldehyde Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) 1-isopropyl-4-methylcyclohexane (trans) Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil 1-isopropyl-4-methylcyclohexane cis) Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil 1-isopropyl-3-methylcyclohexane Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil Decane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Tri-isobutylene Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) cis-Polybutadiene; Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil Cyclohexene-5-methyl-3-(1- methylvinyl) Polymers: Natural Rubber (polyisoprene) Indane Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil 1-Isopropyl-4-methylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Cyclohexene-1-methyl-4-(1- methylvinyl) Polymers: Natural Rubber (polyisoprene) 1-Isopropyl-2-methylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Dimethylstyrene Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) Undecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Tetramethylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydronaphthalene Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil 1,3-Di-isopropyl benzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil 1,4-Di-isopropyl benzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Compound Probable Source 2-Isopropyl-6-methylphenol Antioxidents: Alkylphenols Cyclohexylisothiocyanate Retarders: n-Cyclohexyl-thiophthalimide Cyclododecatriene Polymers: cis-Polybutadiene Dodecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Tridecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Tetraisobutylene Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) cis-Polybutadiene; Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil -ter-Butylstyrene Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) Dimethylpropylhexahydronaphthale ne Plasticizers: Naphthemic oil Tetradecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Nonylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil 2,6-Di-ter-butyl-p-quinone Antioxidents: 2,6-Diterbutyl-hydroquinone Pentadecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil 1,6-dimethyl-4-isopropyl-1,2,3,4- tetra-hydronaphthalene Plasticize rs: Naphthemic oil Decylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Di-ter-butylthiophene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Diethyl phthalate Plasticizers: Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate Hexadecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil ,2-Di-tolylethane Polymers: styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) Heptadecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil 2,6-Di-ter-butyl-4-ethylphenol Antioxidents: Alkylphenols Octadecane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil 1-Phenylnaphthalene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Di-iso-butyl phthalate Plasticizers: Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate Tridecylbenzene Plasticizers: Aromatic oil Dibutyl phthalate Plasticizers: Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate Eicosane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Heneicosane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Docosane Plasticizers: Aliphatic oil Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Plasticizers: Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate Chapter 4 – Conclusions Devulcanization of specific types of rubber and/or waste tire rubber has a long history. However, only recently have limited technical data been reported in the available literature. Usually when reported, the tested properties of devulcanized rubber compose an incomplete list. This is especially true in the interpretation of how the devulcanized product would perform during compounding, in the manufactured end product, or both. Circumstantial and anecdotal evidence indicates significant technical and economic barriers to devulcanization of waste rubber. Based on the information collected in the study, is believed that the only method of achieving bulk devulcanization, as opposed to surface devulcanization, rests with ultrasonic or microwave devulcanization methods. Of these two methods of energy application, ultrasound appears to have substantially more research and development history. An important observation is that microwave technology is not an effective or efficient way to devulcanize non-polar rubber types, which collectively compose the vast majority of the mass of rubber in waste rubbers. Because of the ability to internally devulcanize cured rubber, ultrasonically devulcanized waste tire rubber may have more desirable marketing characteristics than those of surface-devulcanizing processes under similar conditions of cost and yield. The latter processes (surface devulcanizing) include mechanical, chemical, and biological processes. However, test data and applications for ultrasonically devulcanized waste rubber are lacking in the industry, along with process cost documentation. The devulcanized rubber market is most fully developed for single product materials made from manufacturing scrap that are reclaimed for reuse in the same process or in a broader specification application. The reprocessing of single rubbers depends upon being located near a large-volume rubber products company with enough scrap and enough rubber applications to justify the devulcanization step. Devulcanization of waste rubber, despite considerable research and developmental effort, is still in an early growth stage. Devulcanization lacks adequate test data and data interpretation, and it has poorly defined end product specifications without adequately justified and defined applications and uses. Research funds appear to be most available for studying devulcanization of single rubber types, as opposed to studying rubber types with complex mixtur. In applications already using crumb rubber, devulcanized rubber can have advantages if the process combines a vulcanized rubber or other compatible material to create an integrated structure. The structure must have much better properties than those imparted by the filler role that crumb rubber frequently serves. How to cite Evaluation of Waste Tire Devulcanization Technologies, Papers

Profits and Pandemics Service Quality Management in Hospitality

Question: Discuss about the Profits and Pandemics for Service Quality Management in Hospitality. Answer: Introduction The report illustrates the facts of the industry and a chosen organization in that sector of industry. In this study, fast food market of Australia is selected and the analysis of the market will be conducted in the light of the organization Eagle Boys pizza in Australia. Eagle Boys is a restaurant chain in delivering pizza to the Aussies from decades ago. It is one of the biggest companies in delivering pizzas when compared to other fast food retail chains of Australia. Eagle Boys is a multinational channel fast food restaurant has its branches in many parts of the world. The company is focused on its value of innovation, responsiveness, professionalism, consistency, equality and dedication towards growth. The study will discuss about the growth, profitability and recent trends of the industry along with nature of competition, role of primary target market segment into decision-making and positioning map for the company in terms of competition and primary target markets. Apart from that, theoretical concepts of PESTEL analysis and STP in determining the positioning map and position of the organization amongst competitor brands in the Australian fast food market. In the study, trends of fast food market of Australia are also be described in a detailed manner. Industry trends The industry chosen for analyzing is fast food market in Australia in the perspective of performance and positioning of Eagle Boys in Australia. The current trends of the industry will be described in the light of growth, profitability and macro environment of the industry. The fast food industry of Australia comprises of restaurants, cafes, fast food outlets, catering services, etc. However, the facts and figures of the industry will be described under the following categories (Lang Heasman, 2015). The growth of the fast food industry is booming. The facts that will be mentioned below will illustrate the revenue and growth of the industry in Australia. The revenue of the market is nearly $3.7bn. On the other hand, the annual growth of the industry in the year of 2016 is 2.8%. The industry structure in Australia is described in the following: Life cycle stage of the industry is in mature stage. The revenue volatility of the industry is low (Sacks et al., 2015). The capital intensity of the industry is medium. The industry assistance is low. The concentration level of the industry is medium. Regulation level of the fast food industry is medium. Technology change is medium. Barriers to entry of companies in this industry are low. Globalization of the fast food industry is low. On the other hand, the most important is the competition level that is high (Morley et al., 2013). The strong growth of the industry especially the pizza restaurants of Australia is forecasted up to 0.9% in the year of 2017. The revenue in the year will reach up to $3.7bn. Demands of the consumers are changing day by day. The key factors of growth of the fast food industry in Australia are product innovation and diversified demands of customers. Profitability The profitability of the industry is depended on some external drivers that are responsible for creating an impact on the profitability of the industry. The key external drivers are consumer sentiment index, health consciousness, demands other fast food services, real household discretionary income. Due to the convenience of the customers, operators of the industry are focused in improving the customer service while increasing the sales of the operators (Moodie et al., 2013). To maintain the quality of the foods, the prices of the fast foods by many operators have been charged high. However, it is seen that customers are willing to pay more in order to consume high quality foods from the restaurant chains. It can be said that, due to increase in the automation because of innovation of technology, the reliance of the industry in terms of labor is reducing day by day with the decrease of wages (Wellard et al., 2012). Macro Environment Fast food industry is in the mature stage. Many companies are present in the Australian market that are providing ample options of fast foods in the market to the customers. As it is in the mature phase, the growth of the industry is supposed to be 2.6%. However, it is seen that the growth of GDP annually is 2.5%. Hence, the growth rate is according to the growth of the annual GDP of the country (Hobin et al., 2014). There is a shift in the taste and preference of the customers in terms of consuming fast food. People are becoming more health conscious and are becoming choosy in consuming fast foods from the retail outlets. Following this trend, the companies of the fast food industry are shifting their menus from oily to less calorie oriented healthy organic foods with low sugar and carbohydrate content. However, macro environment of fast food industry will be analyzed by using PESTEL analysis, which will be discussed, in the appendix section of the study (Booth Whelan, 2014). Market segments overall The market segments of the operators of the fast food industry i.e. Eagle Boys along with other operators of the industry can be categorized into primary and secondary target markets. Eagle Boys has used the segmentation of demographic and geographic segmentation for selecting the primary and secondary target markets. Geographic segmentation of the target markets illustrates the different geographic divisions of the country. The primary target market i.e. target country of Eagle Boys is Australia (Mok et al., 2013). Apart from that, the company has expanded its business operation from Australia to many countries of the world. It is considered as the secondary target segment in terms of geographic segmentation. Segmentation targeting and positioning is important for determining the particular target customers in order to cater the needs and demands of the customers. Beside this, the marketing strategies of the company are also formulated on the basis of the primary and secondary targe t customers to the company. Another form of segmentation of the target customers is demographic segmentation (Dunn, 2012). The demographic segmentation is conducted based on age groups. The target market is categorized into three categories of age groups. The three age groups are people aged between 15 to 34 years, second is people between age 35 to 54 years of age and the last is people of aged 55 years of age and more than that. The age group between 15 to 34 years of age is considered as the primary target segment of customers of Eagle Boys. The characteristics of people of these age groups are fewer commitments in life, i.e. having no mortgage or responsibilities of children. It is reason of having a discretionary income to them and the spending nature of the customers are reckless (Louviere et al., 2013). Total percentage of this category of customers is 38.8%. It is seen that the people between these ages are proven to spend a substantial amount of their monthly income in consuming fast foods that includes eating pizzas. When compared to the older demographics, these people have a lower level of in come. The characteristics of middle-aged people i.e. between 35 to 54 years are different from that of the previous age groups. It is the largest revenue generator target-segment of customers. Almost 40.9% of the revenue of the industry are generated from them. These people usually have families and come to restaurant for eat away usually with families (Hearst et al., 2013). Well-settled well-established careers along with steady income are the reason of buying higher priced products i.e. pizzas both for themselves and for their families. The last age group i.e. people above 55 years of age do not spend much on fast foods. Nevertheless, they cannot be ignored. These people usually buy pizzas occasionally rather than everyday meal purpose. It can be said that from these age group, the operators of the fast food industry including Eagle Boys collect 20.3% of revenue. Hence, this segment is considered as secondary target segment of customers. Primary segment and decision-making Eagle Boys is recognized as one of the most popular fast food retail chain in selling high quality pizzas to the Aussies. Involvement of primary segment of customers means the people between 35 to 54 years of age. Involvement of customers in the decision making process of customers illustrates the commitment of the company towards its customers. It is discussed earlier that Eagle Boys is dedicated in innovation and maintaining consistency and equality. Apart from that, the company is known for its community involvement in its different strategic business decisions (Nestle, 2013). Involvement of customers will lead to 110% dedication towards excellent customer service. It will lead to more loyal and satisfied customers along with Word of Mouth Promotion (WOM). The culture of the company is open that embrace the ideas of the customers while improving their business strategies in catering the latent needs of the customers. Innovation and passion along with involvement of primary segment in terms of decision making also helps in improving the brand image and create a positive impact on the minds of the people (Bauer et al., 2012). Ultimately the involvement will not only increase the image of the brand but also increase the profitability of the company. Eagle Boys involve primary segment of customers in many ways such as loyalty programs, excellent customer service, involving customers into various in store activities, interacting with the customers. Interaction with the customers with the employees present in the stores will automatically help in collecting feedback from the, feedback is collected regarding the products and services provided by the company in order to satisfy the customers. It is an indirect involvement in the decision making process of the company (Belasco, 2014). Valuable feedback of the customers are recorded in a detailed manner so that in the development of the products and services Eagle Boys implement them so that they can get more loyalty from their existing segments as well as attracting more segments of customers. However, Customers are also included as the external stakeholders of Eagle Boys (Handford et al., 2014). It can be said that the involvement of external and internal stakeholders in the strategi c decision making process of the companies help in formulating strategies that will yield fruitful results in the long run. Apart from that, in the online presence of company, customers of Eagle Boys are connected with the company in many ways (Han et al., 2013). It can be said that, online engagement of customers is more than that of involvement of customers in the decision making process of the company through its online stores. Competition In the industry analysis, it is mentioned that the fast food market of Australia is very competitive in nature. Apart from that, fast food market not only in Australia but also across the world. Hence, it can be said that Eagle Boys in Australia faces tough competition from the other rival brands of fast foods in Australia. It can be said that there are two types of competitors of Eagle Boys in the market. The direct competitors of Eagle Boys in Australia are Dominos, Pizza hut, EBA Pizza Holdings Pty Ltd, La Porchetta Holdings Pty Ltd, etc. Apart from that, there are indirect competitors of Eagle Boys. They are Burger King, McDonalds, Starbucks, KFC, Yum Street, Donut King, etc. However, other local fast food restaurants are popular among different areas of Australia (Harris et al., 2013). Presence of these companies has made a wide availability of choices for the customers for various kinds of fast foods. On the other hand, it can be said that the supermarket giants of Australia ar e providing tough competition to the company. They are engaged in selling different kinds of fast foods as well as organic healthy foods under their private label brands. The trends of the taste and preference of customers are changing day by day. There is a case that, the price of the food items is lower in supermarkets than in any other restaurants like Eagle Boys, McDonalds and other restaurants mentioned above. Strengths: Eagle Boys has a well reputation in Australian market in terms of reputation and superior quality pizza to the Aussies. As it is an Australian company by origin, hence the company is aware about the preferences and the tastes of the people in the market when compared to other US fast food retail chains in Australia. Research has proved a fact that Eagle Boys are providing thick crust of the bread in their pizza for attracting people. While the other pizza sellers are providing thin crust in their pizzas. People of many parts of Australia have preferred Eagle Boys mostly than any other brands of pizzas (Kasapila Shaarani, 2016). Weaknesses: Products range of Eagle Boys is relatively low when compared to other direct competitors of fast food retail chains such as Pizza Hut and Dominos. It is seen that being an international brand in Australia, Dominos have the greatest market share compared to other international and domestic fast food restaurants in the country. Eagle Boys being a domestic pizza manufacturing company of Australia has lower market share than Dominos, Yum Street restaurant, etc (Garcia et al., 2012). Positioning map Positioning map in marketing is defined as the diagrammatic representation that is used by the marketers in order to capture the perceptions o the customers i.e. primary segment of customers towards the brand. Positioning map is also known as perceptual map that is used to position the company or the product line or products of the company compared to the rival brands present in the market (Ferguson et al., 2012). In this situation, positioning map for Eagle Boys will be formulated based on the involvement of the customers in the decision making process of the company. The map will describe the position of the company in the market according to the preference of the customers. The determinants of the positioning map are also formulated as per the feedback of the primary segment of target customers. Conclusion The study focuses on the various aspects of Eagle Boys especially in terms of selection of the target segments of customers along with their involvement in the strategic decision making process of the company. This is explained in details in the study. Apart from that, various facts of fast food industry of Australia is explained in terms of growth, profitability and macro environmental factors of the industry in the country. It is pointed out that the fast food market in Australia is almost saturated in terms of competitors and it is in the matured phase. In terms of product development, there are various types of products that are sold by the companies or operators ruling the industry. There is much competition among the main operators of the industry in Australia not only in terms of gaining a substantial market share but also in terms of attracting more customers and improved profitability. In the last part, a positioning map of the company that will illustrate the products and i ts position in the market amongst its other rival companies. Positioning map will be formulated based on the results of the implementation of segmenting, targeting and positioning of the company in terms of determining marketing mix. References Bauer, K. W., Hearst, M. O., Earnest, A. A., French, S. A., Oakes, J. M., Harnack, L. J. (2012). Energy content of US fast-food restaurant offerings: 14-year trends.American journal of preventive medicine,43(5), 490-497. Belasco, W. J. (2014).Appetite for change: How the counterculture took on the food industry. Cornell University Press. Booth, S., Whelan, J. (2014). Hungry for change: the food banking industry in Australia.British Food Journal,116(9), 1392-1404. Dunn, P. K. (2012). Assessing claims made by a pizza chain.Journal of Statistics Education,20(1), 1-19. Ferguson, C. J., Muoz, M. E., Medrano, M. R. (2012). Advertising influences on young childrens food choices and parental influence.The Journal of pediatrics,160(3), 452-455. Garcia, G., Sunil, T. S., Hinojosa, P. (2012). The fast food and obesity link: consumption patterns and severity of obesity.Obesity surgery,22(5), 810-818. Han, E., Powell, L. M., Kim, T. H. (2013). Trends in exposure to television food advertisements in South Korea.Appetite,62, 225-231. Handford, C. E., Dean, M., Henchion, M., Spence, M., Elliott, C. T., Campbell, K. (2014). Implications of nanotechnology for the agri-food industry: Opportunities, benefits and risks.Trends in Food Science Technology,40(2), 226-241. Harris, J. L., Sarda, V., Schwartz, M. B., Brownell, K. D. (2013). Redefining child-directed advertising to reduce unhealthy television food advertising.American Journal of Preventive Medicine,44(4), 358-364. Hearst, M. O., Harnack, L. J., Bauer, K. W., Earnest, A. A., French, S. A., Oakes, J. M. (2013). Nutritional quality at eight US fast-food chains: 14-year trends.American journal of preventive medicine,44(6), 589-594. Hobin, E., White, C., Li, Y., Chiu, M., O'Brien, M. F., Hammond, D. (2014). Nutritional quality of food items on fast-food kids menus: comparisons across countries and companies.Public health nutrition,17(10), 2263-2269. Kasapila, W., Shaarani, S. M. (2016). Legislationimpact and trends in nutrition labeling: A global overview.Critical reviews in food science and nutrition,56(1), 56-64. Lang, T., Heasman, M. (2015).Food wars: The global battle for mouths, minds and markets. Routledge. Louviere, J. J., Carson, R. T., Burgess, L., Street, D., Marley, A. A. J. (2013). Sequential preference questions factors influencing completion rates and response times using an online panel.Journal of Choice Modelling,8, 19-31. Mok, C., Sparks, B., Kadampully, J. (2013).Service quality management in hospitality, tourism, and leisure. Routledge. Moodie, R., Stuckler, D., Monteiro, C., Sheron, N., Neal, B., Thamarangsi, T., ... Lancet NCD Action Group. (2013). Profits and pandemics: prevention of harmful effects of tobacco, alcohol, and ultra-processed food and drink industries.The Lancet,381(9867), 670-679. Morley, B., Scully, M., Martin, J., Niven, P., Dixon, H., Wakefield, M. (2013). What types of nutrition menu labelling lead consumers to select less energy-dense fast food? An experimental study.Appetite,67, 8-15. Nestle, M. (2013).Food politics: How the food industry influences nutrition and health(Vol. 3). Univ of California Press. Sacks, G., Mialon, M., Vandevijvere, S., Trevena, H., Snowdon, W., Crino, M., Swinburn, B. (2015). Comparison of food industry policies and commitments on marketing to children and product (re) formulation in Australia, New Zealand and Fiji.Critical Public Health,25(3), 299-319. Wellard, L., Glasson, C., Chapman, K. (2012). Fries or a fruit bag? Investigating the nutritional composition of fast food childrens meals.Appetite,58(1), 105-110.